Science and the Steel City: A short history of innovation in Sheffield

Entering the city of Sheffield, you are sure to note its post-industrial nature: driving past the old steelworks, forges and foundries it is impossible to miss the fact that this city was once the centre of gold-standard steelworks in the UK. From coffee shops to climbing gyms, Sheffield proudly commemorates its history: so much so that it’s hard to walk down the high street without spotting a new business bearing the name ‘Foundry’. Sheffield’s legacy as a steel industry hub, despite its downsizing in recent years, continues to survive -it is likely that your parents and grandparents own cutlery made in the Steel City (look out for the engravings next time you wash the dishes)!

From the early exploitation of waterpower to the advent of state-driven armaments production, each chapter in Sheffield’s steel industry reveals new areas of innovation throughout its local history. Sheffield’s steel industry has a fascinating scientific and political history, which we should not forget. So, how did Sheffield become a steel giant, and, with the advent of new technologies, globalisation and scientific innovation, how has the industry changed over the years?

Sheffield’s Geography

Amidst rolling hills abundant with coal, iron, and other essential raw materials, Sheffield has thrived as a centre for steel production. These natural resources have fueled the creation of steel alloys, blending elements such as aluminium, chromium and copper. The surrounding woodland provided ample fuel for early metalworkers engaged in smelting and blacksmithing.

The five rivers which run through Sheffield (the Don, Loxley, Porter Brook, Sheaf and Rivelin) have historically provided an abundance of waterpower, used to operate crucial equipment including blast furnace bellows and trip hammers. The rivers also served as essential passageways for the transportation of heavy goods and raw materials in and out of the city, particularly prior to the establishment of railway networks.

Sheffield Steel: A Timeline

Origins: 13^th – 14^th century

The origins of Sheffield’s steel trace back to around 700 years ago. Early records, such as hearth tax documents from 1297, hint at the presence of steel manufacturing, with mention of figures such as ‘Robert the Cutler’ and the Sheffield knife even being mentioned in Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales in the 14^th century. A Sheffield-made knife discovered at the Tower of London dated back to 1340, a testament to the city’s early steel craftsmanship with Sheffield acting as the main manufacturer of cutlery in England outside London for many years.

“Ther was no man, for peril, dorste hym touche.
A Sheffeld thwitel baar he in his hose.”
The Reeves Tale, Canterbury Tales, Chaucer.

Development and Innovation: 18^th century

Between the late 14th and 17th centuries, metalworking flourished in Sheffield, setting the stage for the steel industry. By 1672 Sheffield city had 224 metal-workers in the town itself, and another 376 in nearby Hallamshire. However, it wasn’t until Benjamin Huntsman’s invention of ‘crucible steel’ in 1740 that Sheffield’s steelmaking capabilities truly expanded.

In the 1740s, Sheffield native Benjamin Huntsman (who’s legacy is commemorated by the Wetherspoons pub on Cambridge Street) revolutionised steelmaking with his discovery of crucible steel, also known as cast steel. As a watch and clock-maker, Huntsman shared a common frustration among his peers regarding the quality of steel available for crafting springs. These critical components, subjected to continuous stress, often failed prematurely due to irregularities in traditional steel, which contained variable carbon levels and slag remnants. Huntsman recognised the need for a purer, more uniform steel, leading him to experiment with the idea of fully melting the steel to achieve homogeneity and purify the material.

Overcoming significant technical challenges, Huntsman successfully developed the crucible steelmaking process in the 1740s. His method involved melting cast iron, steel, sand, glass, ashes, and other components in crucibles at temperatures exceeding 1400°C, however the early technical and commercial history of crucible steel in Sheffield is uncertain due to Huntsman’s secrecy about the process. Crucible steelmaking revolutionised Sheffield’s steel industry, establishing a foundation for consistent steel production with Sheffield’s iconic Crucible Theatre paying homage to this Huntsman’s legacy.

The soaring demand for Huntsman’s steel necessitated significant upgrades to his factories. Less than a century later, these upgraded facilities played a pivotal role in catapulting Sheffield to the forefront of Europe’s steel production, accounting for a remarkable 40% of the total steel output in the region.

Sheffield and War: 19^th – 20^th century

By the mid-1800s, Britain’s annual steel production reached approximately 50,000 tonnes, with Sheffield contributing 85% of this output. The demand for steel surged, particularly driven by the onset of the Crimean War in 1853, which necessitated a significant supply of weapons, equipment and new railways.

During the 19th century, emerging superpower nations such as Germany and the USA began to overshadow Sheffield’s steel industry. Nevertheless, Sheffield’s steel production persisted, especially during the World Wars I and II, when the factories shifted their focus to manufacturing weapons and ammunition for the war effort. Consequently, the city became a significant target for heavy bombings, notably during the 1940 Sheffield Blitz.

During this era, advancements enhanced steel production efficiency and expanded fabrication methods, aiding in infrastructure and weapon manufacturing. Prior to innovations like the 1856 Bessemer process, the first inexpensive industrial process that allowed for the mass production of steel (where air was forced through the molten iron to remove impurities), steel production was costly on a large scale. However, with steel becoming more accessible, mechanisation and steel products became widespread across industries, including in farming and agriculture.

By the early 20th century, steel was utilised in ammunition, household appliances, bridges, rail tracks, and vehicle bodies, playing a key role in durable products. In Sheffield, a scientific understanding of steel metallurgy emerged, notably through the work of Henry Sorby, who pioneered metallographic microscopy techniques in 1863. While formal scientific institutions were slow to develop in Sheffield, education institutions like Firth College and Sheffield Technical School emerged in the late 19th century, eventually merging to form the University of Sheffield in 1905.

Education institutions like Firth College and Sheffield Technical School emerged in the late 19th century, eventually merging to form the University of Sheffield in 1905.

Whilst many Sheffield students may not have much knowledge of the local history, it is important that we acknowledge and commemorate the rich industrial and innovative history of the Steel City.

Despite heavy bombing during WWII and enduring market downturns and policy challenges, Sheffield’s steel production industry remained resilient. However, between 1980 and 1983, Sheffield witnessed the loss of over 50,000 jobs in the steel and engineering sectors. This loss was largely due to the impact of the Thatcher era, marked by further recessions, conflicts between the government and unions, and the eventual privatisation of British steel.

Sheffield and Steel Today

Today, Sheffield’s steelmaking abilities are much reduced. Since the 2008 financial crash, British steel has faced renewed challenges, including reduced demand, escalating energy costs and allegations of “steel dumping” by China. This has resulted in numerous high-profile plant closures, with Forgemaster, Sheffield’s largest steel employer, announcing 100 redundancies from its 630-strong workforce in 2016.

Today, Sheffield’s steel industry, which employed around 2,600 people in 2016, primarily focuses on specialised trades, despite the survival of several major companies such as Sheffield Forgemasters. Specialist “little mesters” operate in small workshops scattered across the city’s remaining industrial areas. The steel industry now concentrates on more specialist steel-making and, in 2005, produced more steel per year by value than at any other time in its history. Despite challenges, national and international buyers continue to be attracted to the quality and heritage of tools and cutlery crafted from Sheffield steel. The city’s legacy endures, evident in its surviving steelworks and the unwavering pride it holds in commemorating its rich heritage.